⚽ Year 10 Physical Education

Components of Fitness

Health-Related Components

• Cardiovascular endurance (aerobic capacity): the ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to working muscles over a prolonged period. Tested by: Cooper 12-minute run, bleep test (20m shuttle run). Important for: long-distance runners, cyclists, swimmers.
• Muscular strength: the maximum force a muscle or muscle group can exert in a single contraction. Tested by: grip dynamometer, 1 rep max (1RM). Important for: weightlifters, rugby players, gymnasts.
• Muscular endurance: the ability of a muscle to perform repeated contractions against a resistance over time without fatigue. Tested by: sit-up test, press-up test. Important for: rowers, cyclists, swimmers.
• Flexibility: the range of movement possible at a joint. Tested by: sit-and-reach test. Important for: gymnasts, dancers, swimmers, martial artists.
• Body composition: the percentage of body weight that is fat, muscle, bone, and other tissues. Measured by: BMI, skinfold measurements, bioelectrical impedance. Important for all sports — optimal body composition varies by event.

Skill-Related Components

• Agility: the ability to change direction quickly and accurately. Tested by: Illinois agility test. Important for: footballers, basketball players, tennis players.
• Balance: the ability to maintain the centre of mass over the base of support. Static balance (standing still) and dynamic balance (while moving). Tested by: stork stand test. Important for: gymnasts, surfers, skiers.
• Coordination: the ability to use two or more body parts smoothly together. Tested by: alternate hand wall throw. Important for: ball sport players, gymnasts.
• Power: the combination of strength and speed (force × velocity). Power = work done ÷ time. Tested by: standing broad jump, vertical jump (Sargent jump test). Important for: sprinters, jumpers, throwers, rugby forwards.
• Reaction time: the time between a stimulus and the start of a response. Tested by: ruler drop test. Important for: sprinters (responding to the gun), goalkeepers, badminton players.
• Speed: the distance covered per unit of time. Tested by: 30m sprint. Important for: sprinters, footballers, basketball players.

Training Principles & Methods

Principles of Training: SPORT/FITT

• Specificity: training must be relevant to the sport/activity and to the component of fitness being developed. A long-distance runner trains differently from a sprinter. Training the wrong energy system or muscle groups will not improve performance.
• Progressive overload: to improve, training must gradually become more challenging over time. The body adapts to a level of stress — to improve further, the overload must increase. Using FITT: increase Frequency, Intensity, Time, or Type.
• Reversibility: gains in fitness are lost if training stops. "Use it or lose it." Cardiovascular fitness is lost faster than strength (aerobic fitness begins to decline within 2 weeks; strength may persist for several months).
• Variation: changing training activities to prevent boredom and overuse injuries, and to work different aspects of fitness
• Rest and recovery: the body adapts during rest, not during exercise. Insufficient rest leads to overtraining and injury.

Methods of Training

• Continuous training: sustained, moderate-intensity aerobic exercise with no rest periods. Running, cycling, swimming at 60–80% max HR. Develops cardiovascular endurance. Low-impact option for injury prevention.
• Interval training: alternating periods of high-intensity exercise and rest/recovery. Can train different energy systems by adjusting the work:rest ratio. High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): very intense efforts (90%+ max HR) with short recovery — very efficient time-wise.
• Fartlek training: "speed play" in Swedish. Continuous training but varying speed and intensity throughout. Combines aerobic and anaerobic training. More enjoyable and less monotonous than pure continuous training.
• Circuit training: a series of stations, each targeting a different muscle group or component of fitness. Minimal rest between stations. Develops muscular endurance and cardiovascular endurance simultaneously. Can be adapted to any sport or goal.
• Weight/resistance training: using weights (or body weight) to develop muscular strength and power. Low reps + high weight → strength and power. High reps + low weight → muscular endurance. Key principles: the one rep max (1RM) as a baseline; progressive overload; adequate rest between sessions for the same muscle groups.
• Plyometric training: explosive, fast, powerful movements that stretch then rapidly contract the muscles (stretch-shortening cycle). Jumping, bounding, hopping, medicine ball throws. Develops power and speed. High injury risk — not suitable for untrained athletes.

The Skeletal System

Functions of the Skeleton

• Support: the skeleton provides the structural framework that holds the body upright and supports soft tissues
• Protection: the skull protects the brain; the ribcage protects the heart and lungs; the vertebrae protect the spinal cord
• Movement: bones act as levers, amplifying the force of muscle contractions. The skeleton allows a wide range of movement at joints.
• Blood cell production: red and white blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow inside certain bones (femur, sternum, ribs, vertebrae)
• Mineral storage: bones store calcium and phosphorus, releasing them into the blood when needed

Types of Bones and Joints

• Long bones (femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna): act as levers for movement. Contain marrow for blood cell production.
• Short bones (carpals, tarsals): provide stability and support with limited movement
• Flat bones (skull, ribs, sternum, scapula): protect organs; large surface for muscle attachment
• Irregular bones (vertebrae, hip bones): unique shapes for specific functions
• Synovial joints: allow free movement. Characterised by: synovial fluid (lubrication), synovial membrane, articular cartilage (cushions bones), ligaments (hold bones together).
• Types of synovial joint: hinge (elbow, knee — flexion/extension only), ball and socket (hip, shoulder — all directions), pivot (atlas/axis — rotation), condyloid (wrist — most directions except rotation), saddle (thumb — most directions), gliding (carpal bones — slight gliding)

Joint Movements

• Flexion: decreasing the angle at a joint (bending). Extension: increasing the angle (straightening).
• Abduction: moving a limb away from the midline of the body. Adduction: moving a limb towards the midline.
• Rotation: turning around the long axis of the bone. Circumduction: circular movement combining all of the above.
• Plantar flexion: pointing the toes downward (like pressing a car pedal). Dorsiflexion: pulling toes upward.

The Muscular System

Types of Muscle

• Skeletal (voluntary) muscle: attached to bone by tendons; under conscious control; responsible for movement; striated (striped) appearance under microscope
• Cardiac muscle: found only in the heart; involuntary; never tires; myogenic (generates its own electrical impulses)
• Smooth (involuntary) muscle: found in walls of blood vessels, digestive system, bladder; not under conscious control; responsible for automatic functions

Major Muscles Used in Sport

• Quadriceps (front of thigh): extend the knee. Used in running, kicking, jumping.
• Hamstrings (back of thigh): flex the knee, extend the hip. Used in sprinting, jumping.
• Gastrocnemius (calf): plantar flexion. Used in running, jumping, cycling.
• Gluteus maximus (buttock): extend and laterally rotate the hip. Power muscles for running and jumping.
• Biceps (front of upper arm): flex the elbow, supinate the forearm. Used in pulling/throwing movements.
• Triceps (back of upper arm): extend the elbow. Pushing movements, throwing follow-through.
• Deltoid (shoulder): abducts the arm, flexes and extends the shoulder. All throwing and swimming movements.
• Trapezius (upper back/neck): elevates and rotates the scapula. Swimming, throwing.
• Pectoralis major (chest): adducts and medially rotates the arm. Throwing, pushing, swimming front crawl.
• Latissimus dorsi (back): adducts and extends the arm. Pulling, rowing, swimming.

Muscle Roles

• Agonist (prime mover): the muscle primarily responsible for a movement. Biceps = agonist for elbow flexion.
• Antagonist: opposes the agonist; relaxes and stretches as the agonist contracts. Triceps = antagonist during elbow flexion. Antagonists provide control and prevent injury.
• Fixators: stabilise the joint proximal to the movement so the agonist can work effectively. Core muscles stabilise the spine during limb movements.
• Synergists: assist the agonist. Work to fine-tune the movement or add force. Brachialis = synergist with biceps in elbow flexion.

Sports Psychology

Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation: motivation from within — enjoyment, personal satisfaction, the love of the sport. More sustainable and leads to better long-term engagement.
• Extrinsic motivation: motivation from external rewards — prizes, money, trophies, praise, selection. Can be effective short-term but may undermine intrinsic motivation if over-relied upon.

Arousal and the Inverted U Theory

• Arousal: a state of physiological and psychological activation. Too little arousal → underperformance (not alert or focused). Too much arousal → overperformance errors (anxiety, muscle tension, poor decision-making).
• Inverted U theory: performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point, then decreases. The optimal arousal level varies by task: complex skills (golf putting) need low arousal; explosive, simple skills (100m sprint) need high arousal.

Anxiety and Stress Management

• Cognitive anxiety: worry and negative thoughts ("I'm going to fail," "Everyone is watching")
• Somatic anxiety: physical symptoms — increased heart rate, sweating, muscle tension, butterflies
• Stress management techniques: deep breathing (activates parasympathetic nervous system), progressive muscle relaxation, imagery/visualisation (mentally rehearsing a successful performance), positive self-talk, pre-performance routines

Skill Classification

• Open skills: performed in an unpredictable environment that requires adaptation. Dribbling in football, returning a serve in tennis.
• Closed skills: performed in a predictable environment. The execution is the same each time. A gymnastics routine, a golf drive from the tee.
• Gross skills: use large muscle groups, less precise (jumping, throwing). Fine skills: use small muscle groups with precision (archery, snooker).
• Discrete skills: clear beginning and end (a penalty kick). Serial skills: a sequence of discrete skills (triple jump = hop, step, jump). Continuous skills: no clear beginning or end (running, cycling).

Socio-Cultural Influences

Factors Affecting Participation in Sport

• Age: participation peaks in youth, declines with age. Older adults face: physical limitations, fewer opportunities, social perception that sport isn't for them. Masters sports categories aim to include older participants.
• Gender: historically, women have had fewer opportunities. Discrimination in funding, media coverage, and pay (pay gap in professional sport). Title IX (USA), Women's Sport Trust (UK). Progress: Women's football, cricket, rugby all growing rapidly. But barriers remain.
• Ethnicity: underrepresentation in some sports (e.g. swimming), overrepresentation in others. Stereotyping (racial stacking), cultural barriers, lack of role models in certain sports.
• Disability: physical, sensory, or intellectual impairments create barriers. Paralympic Games and disability sport organisations aim to overcome these. Perception that disability sport is "less than" is changing. Classification systems for fair competition.
• Socioeconomic status: cost (equipment, club membership, travel, coaching) is a major barrier. Some sports (golf, skiing, tennis) require significant investment. Social class influences which sports people play.

The Role of Sport in Society

• Health benefits: reducing obesity, cardiovascular disease risk, mental health improvement, social connection
• Economic impact: sport creates jobs (athletes, coaches, media, venues), attracts tourism, generates revenue
• Social cohesion: sport can bring diverse communities together and reduce social tensions
• Doping and fair play: performance-enhancing drugs (anabolic steroids, EPO, blood doping) pose health risks and undermine fair competition. WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) oversees testing. Arguments about the nature of fair competition and athlete autonomy.